Who won the First World War — and how combat changed forever

The First World War transformed global warfare, spreading fighting across continents, seas, and the air between 1914 and 1918. Governments mobilised industry, technology, and populations on an unprecedented scale. The First World War divided nations into two main blocs: the Allies, led by France, Britain, Italy, and Russia and later joined by the United States, and the Central Powers, led by Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.Japan sided with the Allies to seize German possessions in the Pacific, while several smaller countries aligned with either side.The Allies ultimately prevailed, with the United States’ entry into the war in 1917 providing decisive manpower and resources that the Central Powers could not match.In terms of human cost, the First World War was the most destructive conflict in history until the Second World War. Around 10 million soldiers were killed and about 20 million more were seriously wounded or disabled. Civilian deaths are harder to quantify, but resulted from shelling, bombing, disease, hunger, industrial accidents and, in some cases, executions.The war spurred scientific and technological innovation on an unprecedented scale, leading to more lethal and effective weapons on both sides.

Advances were also made in communications, medicine, and transportation, though not all innovations proved successful or had the intended impact.

Firearms used

During the First World War, armies used a range of rifles, with each major power fielding its own standard weapon. Allied forces relied on rifles such as the British Lee-Enfield, the French Lebel and Berthier, Italy’s Carcano, Russia’s Mosin–Nagant, and the US Springfield 1903.The Central Powers used weapons including Austria-Hungary’s Steyr–Mannlicher, Germany’s Mauser, and Turkey’s Mauser variants.The American Springfield rifle was based on a bolt-action design similar to Germany’s Mauser, leading the US government to pay licensing fees to the German company until it entered the war.Most machine guns used in the First World War were based on Hiram Maxim’s 1884 design and could fire 450 to 600 rounds per minute, giving defenders a devastating advantage against attacking troops.Mortars also evolved rapidly, becoming more powerful and effective than earlier versions.Britain introduced the Stokes mortar in 1915, a simple design capable of firing up to 22 shells per minute over a range of about 1,200 yards. Germany developed the Minenwerfer, or “mine thrower,” which fired large shells packed with metal fragments.

Poisonous gas on the battlefield

Poison gas was first deployed on a large scale during the First World War in April 1915, when German forces released chlorine gas near Ypres.

Other nations soon developed their own chemical agents, including mustard gas, which caused severe lung damage and painful skin blistering.While gas attacks caused relatively few deaths, they disabled large numbers of soldiers and spread fear across the battlefield. Chemical weapons were banned under international law after the war, but they have been used in later conflicts, including the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.

The birth of the tank

Tanks were introduced during the First World War as a breakthrough weapon to overcome trench warfare. The term “tank” originated from the British, who developed the armoured vehicles in secrecy, while France simultaneously created the Renault FT, featuring a rotating turret that influenced modern tank design.Germany developed its own armoured vehicle only after Britain and France deployed tanks, producing the A7V, a large but unwieldy machine that looked more like a moving building than a modern fighting vehicle.

The rise of air warfare

Air warfare expanded during the First World War as aircraft moved from reconnaissance roles to combat missions. Planes were later equipped with machine guns, and a system developed by Anthony Fokker allowed weapons to fire through spinning propellers, turning aircraft into combat platforms.Early aircraft were made of wood, fabric, and wire and flew at speeds of about 100 mph in 1914, with speeds increasing significantly by the end of the war.Multi-engine bombers were also developed, including Germany’s Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI, which could carry large bomb loads over long distances, including missions against London.

Undersea warfare in WWI

Submarines were developed by several countries before the First World War, but they became closely linked with Germany during the conflict. The Imperial German Navy used U-boats to challenge Britain’s naval power, developing longer-range submarines and improving torpedoes.U-boats attacked ships with torpedoes and deck guns, often surfacing within convoys before striking and diving. After the war, there was an attempt to ban submarine warfare, similar to efforts to prohibit chemical weapons, but the effort failed.